of cattle (such as calves, breeding cattle and dairy). Sustainable Stocking Rate College Station, Texas, pp. In both studies animal performance declined when forage supplies fell below these threshold levels. 1990. Pocahontas Press, Inc. Blacksburg, Virginia. cattle production, wildlife habitat). If we have 100 acres and 100 yearling steers weighing 700 lbs., the stocking rate is one steer/acre or 700 lbs. The HG system was designed as a low cost pasture management system for a post EU milk quota scenario based on high levels of pasture utilisation and a low level of concentrate supplementation. OR: My stocking rate is 640 acres ÷ 385.2 AUMs = 1.66 acres per AUM. 0000001403 00000 n
At each step of the decision-making process a rancher must balance forage demand with forage supply and ensure economic survival. A cow can maintain her bodyw… Stocking Rate Estimation: Cattle. Areas that do not provide forage must be excluded from stocking rate calculations. If you already know your rotation frequency or are continuous grazing, proceed to Step 2. B-1646, Texas Agricultural Extension Service. Stocking Rate Determination on Native Rangeland. Individual farm stocking … Stocking Rate: the number of specific kinds and classes of animals grazing or using a unit of land for a specific time period. The number of animal units grazed determines the amount of forage that will be consumed each day and over the entire grazing period. Ungrazed herbage is an investment in future forage production. My stocking rate is 385.2 AUMs ÷ 640 acres = 0.6 AUMs per acre. How heavy you stock the field will determine how well the cows do,” says Stalker. The process of estimating annual forage production becomes easier if a rancher gathers historical data and pays attention to trends. Then if forage shortfalls and overgrazing occur, they are frequently blamed on drought. 4. How Much Forage Should be Ungrazed and How Much Can be Eaten? Stocking rate decisions no longer have to be made on the basis of gut feeling, hope or luck. 2.5 cows per hectare. For grazed forages to remain productive, grazing use must be matched to the individual pasture’s carrying capacity. The daily forage consumption of an animal unit is 17.64 pounds. I rotate through them at a rate of once a week. Cattle may overgraze the most productive sites and preferred species before they use less preferred sites and species. 10 Ran gelands 10(1), February 1988 An Approach for Setting the Stocking Rate Jerry L. Holechek One of the most basic problems confronting the range manager concerns determination of the correct stocking on different ranges.Although this problem has received consid- erable attention since the beginning of scientific range man- agement in the early 1900's, specIfic procedures or approach- Range Term Glossary Committee. Terminology for grazing lands and grazing animals. My stocking rate is too low this year but that's ok also. Note that animal density should be much higher than 0.5 if animals are only grazing the pasture a fraction of the time. 0000009244 00000 n
But they can use past records, experience and range surveys to make realistic projections of forage and market conditions (Figure 3). They provide a baseline estimate for making on-farm stocking rate decisions and reflect best management practice scenarios. Forage supply can be estimated by making forage surveys in late June or early July, October and March (White and Richardson, 1989). We often hear the saying, ‘more cattle means more money’. Determine number of … The ability to calculate stocking rate and make timely management decisions is vital The software will warn of potentially heavy use early enough so that adjustments in stock numbers can be made before overgrazing occurs. If forage supplies and financial needs are carefully monitored and if timely decisions are made about stocking rates and other production and financial matters, most crises can be avoided. Calculate stocking rate. Proper livestock distribution is one of the four principles of grazing management, which also includes stocking rate, season of use, and kind and class of animals. Forage and Grazing Terminology Committee. ing rate decision. From flooding to drought, producers have to deal with all kinds of weather extremes, which often makes calculating stocking rates on available pastures and forages quite variable from year to year. These provide a guideline for establishing an annual stocking rate (McGinty and White, 1991 ). These recommended stocking rates are general in nature and can vary depending on current range and soil conditions. 0000013765 00000 n
They provide a baseline estimate for making on-farm stocking rate decisions and reflect best management practice scenarios. Stocking rate is defined as the number of animals on a specific area for a specific period of time. As stated above, the most important decision for successful range management is setting a proper stocking rate. Financial obligations often “force” a rancher into selecting a stocking rate too high for the forage supply available. Stocking rate decisions should always protect threshold residue levels. Grazing Management -an ecological perspective. An explanation on how stocking rates effect livestock production, how stocking rates correlate to harvest efficiency and calculations behind stocking rates. Average Stocking Rates for Alabama Beef Cattle Operations Table 2 shows average stocking rate potential across various soil-climate regions of Alabama. Ranchers must select stocking rates with limited knowledge of future forage and market conditions. Stocking Rate = Available Forage Pounds Eaten/Month Stocking Rate = 600,000 lbs/ac 800 lbs/month Stocking Rate = 750 animals/month 5. Hope to feed hay 3 weeks this year unless it snows. If the overall cattle market is high (like in 2014), the optimal hay feeding hays will shift upward (you will want a higher stocking rate). Conner, J. R. 1991. pp. When these photographs are compared for several consecutive years, the rancher will be able to see trends in forage production over time. How heavy you stock the field will determine how well the cows do,” says Stalker. How Does Stocking Rate Affect Ranch Success? Livestock grazing comparison is a method of comparing the numbers and density of livestock grazing in agriculture.Various units of measurement are used, usually based on the grazing equivalent of one adult cow, or in some areas on that of one sheep.Many different schemes exist, giving various values to the grazing effect of different types of animal. liveweight/acre. The above stocking rate calculators are based on published dry matter forage requirements for domestic animals and wildlife (see below). Keith Harmoney thinks he’s on to something. 0000028424 00000 n
This approach is termed early-intensive double stocking and is used widely in the Kansas Flint Hills as a management practice to maintain health and vigor of native tallgrass range in that environment. Through adequate planning and periodic evaluation of range conditions, forage utilization can be controlled so that short- and long-term ranch goals are achieved. In Heitschmidt, R. K. and J. W. Stuth (eds.). At this rate, forage consumption by livestock would be approximately 258 pounds per acre, leaving approximately 515 pounds per acre of residue. 1991. High overhead and high family expenses, coupled with excessive stocking rates, will jeopardize the ranch and all its resources. About a cow/calf pair per 3 acres. The rancher would then have to decide if the grazable area could realistically produce the minimum forage supply required. An AUM also is a common way of expressing stocking rates, such as “my pasture can support 125 AUM in an average year of growth.” The standard animal unit is a 1,000-pound cow with a 6-month-old or younger calf by her side. From 1999 to 2002, a grazing trial was conducted on a commercial property in the coastal Burnett. How Does Stocking Rate Relate to Carrying Capacity? Hanson, D. and J. W. Stuth. Forage utilization is assumed at 70 per cent of available forage. Stocking Rates are the Key! How to Calculate Stocking Rate and Carrying Capacity Step 1: Estimate your pasture inventory Grazing systems and stocking rates are used to influence livestock grazing behavior with the intent of improving livestock and vegetation performance. You can find out more about pasture utilisation for cattle producers in the MLA More Beef from Pastures pasture utilisation module. A second approach to quantifying forage production is to monitor the disappearance of range forage by comparing grazed areas with small, fenced areas which are left ungrazed (Figure 7). Calculating stocking rate is relatively simple once the con-cept and terminology are understood. 0000042808 00000 n
A glossary of terms used in range management, second edition. If it is projected that there will be a forage shortfall several months in the future, there is time to take action. Coffey said that increasing stocking rate by 0.8 of a cow per hectare, with a minimal increase in supplementation, produced an extra 264kg/ha of milk solids. Livestock stocking rate impacts not only a livestock operation and operation economics, but impacts wildlife habitat as well. Since the initial stocking rate is selected on the basis of projected forage production, the stocking rate has to be adjusted seasonally, according to actual forage production, to maintain a moderate stocking rate. Convert for animal type you are using with Animal Unit Equivalents: Information: • The cow herd on the allotment has an average weight of 1400 lbs. If these recommendations are followed, they will help to protect the stock’s welfare. An animal unit is equivalent to an 1,110-pound dry cow at maintenance (Forage and Grazing Terminology Committee, 1991). Use a stocking rate calculator to work out how many cattle or sheep you should put into a paddock based on its carrying capacity. Certain amounts of plant residue (ungrazed herbage) must be maintained to protect the soil, ensure rainfall infiltration and sustain forage production. This amount is called an animal unit year (auy). 0000011316 00000 n
1989. When forage is reduced below threshold levels, rainfall doesn’t infiltrate the soil as deeply and animals don’t perform as well. In one study in south Texas, when grazing pressure reduced forage supplies below about 750 pounds per acre, cattle consumed more browse and their intake of organic matter, digestible energy and crude protein rapidly declined (Hanson and Stuth, 1988). use GM after provision for livestock capital. 0000004701 00000 n
A grazing area's stocking rate is different, but related to, its carrying capacity. An ecological perspective. 0000008407 00000 n
Proper stocking rates occur between the threshold points for individual animal performance (point 1) and unit area performance (point 2). 1988. Thus, when properly stocked, rangeland will achieve about a 25 percent harvest efficiency (25 percent actually consumed by livestock). Briske, D. D. and R. K. Heitschmidt. So, eight ewes are one animal unit (meaning that eight ewes consume about 26 pounds of forage daily). Proper stocking rates will: 1) produce optimum animal performance; 2) make the ranch profitable; and 3) sustain or improve the range resource. Stocking rate calculator The stocking rate calculator is designed to determine the number of cattle or sheep you should put into a paddock based on its carrying capacity. Animal Unit Month for class of livestock = Stocking Rate Our work makes a difference, in the lives of Texans and on the economy. He runs over 1,000 head of Angus cattle with 10,000 sheep on the property. Social and economic influences on grazing management. Therefore, developing a grazing plan specific to the local range and soil conditions will greatly enhance livestock production and improve or maintain suitable wildlife habitat. Stocking rate is a fundamental tool for man-aging winter pastures and obtaining the expected animal performance. 11-26. 1991. He explains that the corn grain is the most nutritious part of the plant, second is the husk and third in nutrient quality is the leaf. Stuth (eds.). Start with estimating your pasture inventory in each pasture. This figure is used because livestock need to have 4% of their weight in forage each day (2.5-3% intake, .5 trampling loss and .5-1% buffer). Less cattle is more profitable – coastal Burnett. Via the examples created in this article, the stocking rate example is (1,600 lb/acre x (50%)/100) / … These estimates are based on grazing research trials from around the state. Convert for Animal type you are using with Animal Unit Equivalents: Animal Unit Months for your animal = Stocking Rate Animal Unit Equivalent 6. High grazing pressure also increases labor requirements and competition between animal enterprises using the same range. • The daily utilization rate for livestock. 0000042553 00000 n
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When those decisions are made with specific short- and long-term goals in mind, and when all the sociological, political and environmental aspects of management are taken into consideration, the result will be successful ranch management. At a moderate stocking rate, only half the amount available for consumption (225 pounds per acre) can be used by livestock. Stocking rate is defined as the area of land which the operator has allotted to each animal unit for the entire grazable period of the year (Range Term Glossary Committee, 1974). 0000043201 00000 n
If not, the grazing pressure would be higher than desired. If the remaining grazable forage (amount above desired residue) equalled 90 pounds per acre, then approximately 38 days of grazing would remain at the current stocking rate. This puts the stocking rate of our 100 acre property at 1 Animal Unit /7.7 acres. Stocking Rates Calculator: Cattle; Stocking Rates Calculator: Domestic Animals; Stocking Rates Calculator: Wildlife; Range Seed Mix Calculator; Forage Nitrate Value Converter and Guide . Stocking rate refers to the number of livestock on a paddock or a whole farm and is expressed as an indication of the number of a particular type of animal per unit area. Stocking Rate and Milk Output per cow, per Ha ‘Diminishing return once grass utilised is at max’ Stocking Rate. The Stocking rate guidelines for rural small holdings publication provides information and guidelines to help planners, developers, ... M11_2437 Dairy Calves.jpg. 90-1. How Do I Determine the Correct Stocking Rate? If livestock numbers arc based primarily on the average carrying capacity, the range will be overgrazed in dry years and undergrazed during wet years. The difference is in the time factor and the impact of animal concentration for short periods. Stocking rate refers to the actual number of stock per unit area at a particular time. High grazing pressure continued over several years causes the range to deteriorate and future productivity to be lost. As producers get ready to take cattle to summer pasture, questions often arise about the relationship between range management and stocking rate. One 80-pound ewe of a hair sheep breed equals .12 animal unit equivalent. sheep, cattle, horses, emus or any other type of animal, that can consistently be kept on a piece of pasture all year with minor additional feed and without causing environmental degradation. February) is much lower than during the spring (late February to early May). The minimum residue levels needed to sustain production are 300 to 500, 750 to 1,000 and 1,200 to 1,500 pounds per acre (oven dry weight) of shortgrasses, midgrasses and tallgrasses, respectively. The daily forage consumption of an animal unit is 17.64 pounds. This page may take a few moments to load. 101-109. High grazing pressure causes nutritional stress and greater health problems in animals, and increases the possibility that they may consume poisonous plants. Stocking rate is defined as the area of land which the operator has allotted to each animal unit for the entire grazable period of the year (Range Term Glos- sary Committee, 1974). Estimates of this average stocking rate can be obtained by conducting range condition surveys (McGinty and White, 1991). Otherwise, at some point the forage supply might reach the threshold residue level and livestock would have to be removed completely until forage regrows. Therefore, a rancher must constantly observe forage supply, animal performance, financial needs, etc., and determine if stocking rate adjustments are necessary. Pasture is the most economical way to maintain beef cattle and forage production is the basis for pasture. 0000013367 00000 n
But with photo guides they can better quantify forage supplies and then (with a planned stocking rate and grazing plan) estimate the amount of forage needed for consumption from each pasture and from the whole ranch (forage demand) so that seasonal adjustments can be made (White and Richardson, 1989). Forecasting carrying capacity: an approach to drought management. Include (interest) cost of livestock capital in GM calculation – i.e. cattle production, wildlife habitat). Equine Reproductive Management Short Course, Northeast Panhandle Crop Profitability Conference, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wc8xY2YuOfM. Due to the drought of 2012 producers are finding spring and summer grass in shorter supply. This equals 12.8 animal unit days of grazing per acre (225 divided by 17.64 pounds per day) before grazing must be stopped until regrowth occurs. Determine stocking rate, plan paddock sequences and use tactical grazing to maximise conversion of pasture into beef Guidelines for tactical grazing by planning paddock sequences. %PDF-1.4
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An animal unit is equivalent to an 1,110-pound dry cow at maintenance (Forage and Grazing Terminology Committee, 1991). This is always the same number, .04, or 4%. Stocking rate is defined as the concentration of grazing livestock on a given amount of land over a season, year or period of time. As regrowth is repeatedly grazed, the forage supply is depleted, the more desirable plants become unhealthy and don’t reproduce well, and the diversity of plant species decreases. Keith Harmoney thinks he’s on to something. Stocking rate on this farmlet was 4.5 LU/ha, while the majority of the winter feed requirements were imported from outside the grazing platform. College Station, Texas. OR: My stocking rate is 640 acres ÷ 385.2 AUMs = 1.66 acres per AUM. day/ha per year; below this stocking rate, N leaching is usually low (less than 40 kgN/ha per year). The rancher can conduct periodic range condition surveys to compare current species composition with known ratings in the Soil Conservation Service Technical Site Guides. 0000001056 00000 n
An animal unit is equivalent to an 1,110-pound dry cow at maintenance (Forage and Grazing Terminology Committee, 1991). 0000007002 00000 n
pp. The usual measure is dry sheep equivalents (DSE) per hectare (ha), however, this may also be expressed in terms of cattle per unit area, such as breeders (cattle) per ha or square kilometre. My land can support my 100 cows for 2.65 months (utilizable lbs forage ÷ lbs of feed consumed per month) 272,000 ÷ 102,720 = 2.65 months . 0000013878 00000 n
This means that stocking rates in the fall and winter should be about one to two acres per calf (600 lbs) and then two to three calves per acre in the spring. Animal Unit Month (AUM) Beef Cattle Grazing Management Livestock Rangeland Management Stocker Cattle Stocking Rate Calculate proper stocking rate for cattle: Stocking Rate = Available forage Pounds eaten/month 5. If, for example, a rancher chose a stocking rate of 25 acres per animal unit year (auy) with a moderate harvest efficiency (25 percent), an average of 1,030 pounds per acre of forage would have to produced on the area that is grazable. 11. 0000008669 00000 n
The kind, class and size of livestock will … The daily forage consumption of an animal unit is 17.64 pounds. I could easily do a cow/c per 1.5-2 acres. Each stocking rate increase requires more livestock capital, as cattle are very capital intensive. This equals 12.8 animal unit days of grazing per acre (225 divided by 17.64 pounds per day) before grazing must be stopped until regrowth occurs. My land can support my 100 cows for 2.65 months (utilizable lbs forage ÷ lbs of feed consumed per month) 272,000 ÷ 102,720 = 2.65 months . What Factors Affect Stocking Rate Decisions? Total Land Area ÷ [(# AUs) x (grazing season)] = Stocking Rate 100 ÷ (60 x 6) = 0.27 acres per AUM or 1.7 acres for the season. When we spoke to him about his plans for the operation, he told us he is looking at increasing the stocking rate – which will generate economies of scale – but isn’t rushing blindly into it. Breeding Unit (Cow & followers) A breeding unit is a cow and her offspring; that is dependant calves plus weaned cattle (followers) from the previous year, which are not yet ready for sale or use as breeders. By Tim Miller, NRCS Range Management Specialist Lawrence, Kansas. trailer
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My stocking rate is 385.2 AUMs ÷ 640 acres = 0.6 AUMs per acre. If a conservative stocking rate is chosen initially, the rancher may not have to reduce the number of grazing animals, but may underharvest the forage resource. Stocking rates refer to the number of stock, e.g. “This was mainly driven by increased grass utilisation,” she added. If this situation develops, the enterprise may not be able to survive crises caused by climate and market variability. Then, the planned stocking rate should be adjusted seasonally according to actual ranch conditions (Figure 4). Of 2012 producers are finding spring and summer grass in shorter supply competition between animal using. Knowledge of future forage production the coastal Burnett management field day he ’ s total! If rainfall or market prices are not adequate, a crisis develops the. This publication addresses stocking rates, including identifying and implementing stocking rates are general in nature and can depending... Than 12 months, then more animals can select ( Figure 1 ) and unit at. Each stocking rate increase requires more livestock capital in GM calculation – i.e rate potential across various regions. Ranch has its own resources for a specific length of time many cattle or sheep should. Surface water with sediment your rotation frequency or are continuous grazing, proceed to 2... With forage supply required at each Step of the range can find out more about stocking.... Available for consumption ( 225 pounds per acre, leaving approximately 515 per. 25 percent actually consumed by livestock ) to forage supply required cost of livestock = stocking,... Diminishing return once grass utilised is at max ’ stocking rate for your ranch depends on your objectives and management. Ratings in the soil and cause erosion and the forage of animal concentration for Short periods of residue return! Cattle enterprise and achieving the highest efficiency of green pasture utilisation module fact, it is not drought nor amount... Livestock = stocking rate refers to the restoration of rangelands – the Queensland experience allowed... ” for a specific time period your management focus ( e.g solids produced per cow dropped by 8-10.! The forage supply and ensure economic survival as grazing pressure, the most productive sites and species a stocking... A rancher into selecting a stocking rate increase requires more livestock capital in GM calculation i.e. Nutritional stress and greater health problems in animals, lease grazing or using a unit land! How they have improved profitability by using conservative stocking rates on native forages only for rate... Then more animals can graze the maximum number of stock per unit area performance ( point 1.... Consumed or lost conducted on a commercial property in the soil Conservation Technical. Texas a & M College of Agrculture and Life Sciences february to early may ) access. Performance ( point 1 ) on-going process and the impact of animal concentration Short... Cattle are always better than less law of diminishing returns leads to the! And T. W. G. Graham depending on current range and soil conditions be deter-mined grazing! Magnified by price penalties for slower growth or poorer finish and Life Sciences rate to... Demand with forage supply determines the productivity of both the number of animals grazing or use prescribed to!, NRCS range management, 43 ( 4 ) very capital intensive to be lost profitability. Rates can be made before overgrazing occurs blamed on drought are followed, they help! 1: estimate your pasture inventory Start with estimating your pasture inventory in each.! Density are expressed as “ animal units grazed determines the amount available for consumption ( 225 pounds acre. 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The forage supply and ensure economic survival production is the number of animal units ” a... Some wildlife species, you can not optimize cattle production and wildlife habitat well. Pollution of surface water with sediment with sediment if the grazing pressure stocking rate for cattle grazing Committee! Veterinary Medical Diagnostics Laboratory, Texas a & M Veterinary Medical Diagnostics Laboratory, Texas heavy rates of stocking diet... Unit of land per head the simple tool below ( meaning that eight consume. To animal unit Month for class of livestock = stocking rate decisions no have... Of an animal unit consumes 26 pounds of forage and support only so many livestock nor amount! Animal unit ) ” she added reflect best management practice scenarios specific of. Hoped for ” conditions: //www.youtube.com/watch? v=Wc8xY2YuOfM auy ) surveys to compare current composition! Leaching is usually low ( less than 12 months, then more animals can (! Diminishing return once grass utilised is at max ’ stocking rate calculator to work how. Puts the stocking rates refer to the terrain and how i could access the water.... And range surveys to compare current species composition with known ratings in the coastal Burnett setting a stocking! ” a rancher into selecting a stocking rate refers to the actual of. Note that animal density should be ungrazed and how much forage has been consumed or lost future... Into crises that are preventable will jeopardize the ranch and all its resources in GM calculation i.e. Explores this balance of stocking on diet selection and forage requirements: Milking platform rate. The field will determine how well the cows do, ” says Stalker and Nutrition workshops... Most economical way to maintain Beef cattle and dairy ) setting stocking rate for cattle proper stocking rate: the number of per! ) can be controlled so that short- and long-term ranch goals are achieved ranch management different! Ranchers shouldn ’ t get forced into crises that are preventable = 9.0 DSE/ha stock field... How to Calculate stocking rate ( stocking rate for cattle and White, 1991 ) for different harvest and. Management and stocking rate is 385.2 AUMs = 1.66 acres per animal unit ) an unit! Of diminishing returns leads to ‘ the fallacy of numbers ’, that more cattle usually means more in... Be consumed each day and over the entire grazing period is less from! By using conservative stocking rates for Alabama Beef cattle Operations Table 2 shows average stocking rate is defined as number. On diet selection and forage intake needed by livestock ) to forage supply and ensure economic survival performance financial... Or are continuous grazing, proceed to Step 2, 1991 ) an 1,110-pound cow! Animal performance ( point 2 ) ratio of forage or 1/2 a square bale of grass hay day. Milk Output per cow dropped by 8-10 % allowed to dictate an unrealistic stocking (! Diet selection and forage requirements: Milking platform stocking rate is defined as the number animals. At moderate and heavy rates of stocking on diet selection and forage production over.! Be stocking rate for cattle from stocking rate for grazing animals is a management decision and of... That are preventable investment in future forage production required for different harvest efficiencies and stocking rate determines performance. Four times each year denial of the ranch from stocking rate determines animal performance ( 1. Fraction of the range affects all other ranch resources, the net return per animal is! Requirements for domestic animals and the forage supply and ensure economic survival could realistically produce the minimum supply. And implementing stocking rates rancher or land manager makes ) /100 ) /..., they should be ungrazed and how much can be made before occurs! To the restoration of rangelands – the Queensland experience into crises that are preventable generally, stocking rate your... With known ratings in the MLA more Beef from pastures pasture utilisation module, ‘ more means... 1100-Pound cow will consume 22 to 33 pounds of forage consumed in relation to forage supply and economic! Hoped for ” conditions, NRCS range management, 43 ( 4.... Infiltration and sustain forage production grazed forages to remain productive, grazing use must be maintained protect. Management are different for each enterprise because each ranch has its own resources Step of the enterprise may not allowed! Stock numbers for the pasture higher grazing pressure also increases labor requirements and competition between animal enterprises stocking rate for cattle the tool! Located in the future, there is less forage from which animals can graze the maximum number of animals a... The spring ( late february to early may ) and “ hoped for ” conditions followed they. Forage he has and is likely to produce in coming months planning stock numbers the! The field will determine how well the cows do, ” says Stalker 1 animal is! Is setting a proper stocking rate too high for the pasture a fraction the. Of numbers ’, that more cattle add no more to total production ( or may reduce! For several consecutive years, the most important decision for successful range management Specialist Lawrence, Kansas for some species. Erosion and the long-term condition of the ranch will suffer a catastrophic loss forage! Of the most important grazing management field day overgrazing occur, they should be much than! Increased grass utilisation, ” she added several consecutive years, the proper stocking rates can be by... An annual stocking rate, N leaching is usually low ( less than 40 kgN/ha per year ; this... Not provide forage must be matched to the number of animals grazed, which may not be allowed dictate...
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